The Last Judgment
The icons of the Last Judgment illustrate the biblical prophecy concerning the Second Coming of Christ and the Judgment He will render upon humanity. The iconography of this theme draws on the texts of the Gospels (Mt. 13:49–51; 19:28; 25:31–46; Jn. 5:22,27), apocryphal sources, the Revelation of John the Theologian, Old Testament texts, and works by Ephrem the Syrian, Palladius the Monk, and the Life of Basil the Younger. Depictions of the Last Judgment date back to the catacomb period, initially represented through the separation of the “sheep” from the “goats.” The composition of the theme began to take on a standardized form between the 8th and 11th centuries. In Ukrainian churches, Last Judgment imagery appears as early as the 12th century, becoming a traditional element of church interiors by the 15th century. It typically occupied the southern wall of the nave, opposite depictions of the Passion of Christ on the northern wall. Together with the iconostasis on the eastern wall, these elements formed a unified thematic and visual composition. Occasionally, the Last Judgment was depicted on the western wall near the entrance to the church.
General Composition
The icon is divided into several horizontal registers, symmetrically divided vertically. Although specific elements and their arrangement vary between icons, the overall iconography adheres to certain characteristic features.
The Upper Register: This section depicts angels rolling up the heavens (Rev. 6:14). The heavenly scroll often includes representations of the sun, moon, stars, and occasionally zodiac signs. To the left stands the Heavenly Jerusalem with Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the righteous at its gates. On the right side of the register is the Golgotha Cross and angels casting demons out of heaven. Below the scroll, celestial forces are frequently portrayed surrounding a mandorla. Within it is God the Father, depicted as the Ancient of Days (Dan. 7:9), or represented by the inscription “Father” or the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew.
The Second Register: The central figure is Christ. During the 15th–16th centuries, He was depicted in the iconographic type of “Christ in Majesty” (Ezek. 1:4–6, 10, 13–16, 18, 22–28). This was later replaced by the “Christ in Glory” type (the Nicene Creed). Here, Christ is shown seated on a rainbow within a blue mandorla supported by four angels, blessing with both hands. Occasionally, He holds a Book in His left hand. His garments are typically white, gold, or purple. From the 17th century onward, some icons include an exposed portion of Christ’s torso, displaying the spear wound. A fiery river flows from the mandorla or the Throne of Preparation into a fiery lake at the bottom of the icon. Closest to Christ stand the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist, with the twelve apostles seated on thrones behind them, symbolizing their role in judging the twelve tribes of Israel.
The Third Register: The central element is the Throne of Preparation (Ps. 9:5–8; Ps. 92:2), holding the Book (Rev. 5:1), the instruments of Christ’s Passion, and the Holy Spirit. Beneath the throne is the Hand of God holding scales, surrounded by numerous faces representing souls. The scales weigh human deeds: good outweighs evil, but demons attempt to tilt the balance. Angels intervene, symbolizing the struggle for souls. Kneeling before the Throne are Adam and Eve.
A serpent symbolizing the tollhouses extends from the mouth of Gehenna to Adam’s feet. It is divided into segments, each representing different sins, such as “slander,” “envy,” and “anger.” Demons accuse sinners, while angels direct their souls away from Gehenna.
Groups of People: To Adam and Eve’s right are groups representing various nations in their traditional attire: “Poles,” “Ruthenians,” “Turks,” “Tatars,” “Germans,” “Moors,” and others. Closest to Eve is the Jewish people, led by Moses. Opposite them are the righteous, organized into hierarchies such as “kings,” “prophets,” “martyrs,” and “ascetics,” led by the Apostle Paul. Paul’s role here mirrors that of Moses, leading the new chosen people—Christians—to God.
The Lower Register: On the right, the sea and earth are depicted. The sea is represented as a wavy sphere with its personification and marine creatures. The earth is shown as an island with a personification, a city, and graves opening to release the dead. Creatures regurgitate the bodies they had devoured. At the four corners of the earth stand angels blowing trumpets, summoning the dead to judgment (Dan. 12:1–2; Rev. 20:13).
To the left is Paradise, often depicted as a garden within a circle or surrounded by fortress walls. Inside sits the Virgin Mary, accompanied by angels and the penitent thief Dismas (Lk. 23:40–43). Nearby are the three patriarchs—Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob—holding the souls of the righteous. Sometimes, they cradle these souls in stretched-out cloths. Paradise’s gates are guarded by a flaming seraph (Gen. 3:24), while the Apostle Peter, holding keys, leads the righteous to the entrance. Beside Paradise is the “merciful fornicator,” whose mercy saved him from hell but whose sins barred him from Paradise.
Gehenna and the Torments of Hell: A fiery river flows into Gehenna’s mouth, where Satan, seated within a two-headed beast, holds the soul of Judas Iscariot. Surrounding him are five infernal punishments: “unquenchable fire,” “undying worms,” “outer darkness,” and others. Individual sinners suffer punishments corresponding to their sins. Among these scenes are depictions of taverns, providing valuable insights into the social customs of the time.
Conclusion:
The iconography of the Last Judgment serves not only as a visual representation of eschatological themes but also as a rich source of cultural and theological insights. The meticulous composition reflects both the biblical narrative and the artistic traditions of the time.
Mykhailo Skop
